Bly är giftigt och kan direkt eller indirekt orsaka stora problem hos däggdjur och fåglar.I vissa fall kan blyförgiftning orsaka att de dör. Även om tillförseln av bly till naturen harminskat de senaste decennierna så återstår stora problem. Framför allt för en del rovfåglar och asätande däggdjur. 

Lead poisoning of animals due to ingestion of fragments from lead-based ammunition in carcasses and offal of shot wildlife is acknowledged globally and raises great concerns about potential behavioral effects leading to increased mortality risks. Lead levels in blood were correlated with progress of the moose hunting season. Based on analyses of tracking data, we found that even sublethal lead concentrations in blood (25 ppb, wet weight), can likely negatively affect movement behavior (flight height and movement rate) of freeranging scavenging Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). Lead levels in liver of recovered post-mortem analyzed eagles suggested that sublethal exposure increases the risk of mortality in eagles. Such adverse effects on animals are probably common worldwide and across species, where game hunting with lead-based ammunition is widespread. Our study highlights lead exposure as a considerably more serious threat to wildlife conservation than previously realized and suggests implementation of bans of lead ammunition for hunting.

Lead poisoning of animals due to ingestion offragments from lead-based ammunition in carcasses and offalof shot wildlife is acknowledged globally and raises greatconcerns about potential behavioral effects leading to increasedmortality risks. Lead levels in blood were correlated withprogress of the moose hunting season. Based on analyses oftracking data, we found that even sublethal lead concentrationsin blood (25 ppb, wet weight), can likely negatively affectmovement behavior (flight height and movement rate) of freeranging scavenging Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). Leadlevels in liver of recovered post-mortem analyzed eaglessuggested that sublethal exposure increases the risk ofmortality in eagles. Such adverse effects on animals are probably common worldwide and across species, where game huntingwith lead-based ammunition is widespread. Our study highlights lead exposure as a considerably more serious threat to wildlifeconservation than previously realized and suggests implementation of bans of lead ammunition for hunting.

Birds of prey, owls and falcons are widely used as sentinel species in raptor biomonitoring programmes. A major current challenge is to facilitate large-scale biomonitoring by coordinating contaminant monitoring activities and by building capacity across countries. This requires sharing, dissemination and adoption of best practices addressed by the Networking Programme Research and Monitoring for and with Raptors in Europe (EURAPMON) and now being advanced by the ongoing international COST Action European Raptor Biomonitoring Facility. The present perspective introduces a schematic sampling protocol for contaminant monitoring in raptors. We provide guidance on sample collection with a view to increasing sampling capacity across countries, ensuring appropriate quality of samples and facilitating harmonization of procedures to maximize the reliability, comparability and interoperability of data. The here presented protocol can be used by professionals and volunteers as a standard guide to ensure harmonised sampling methods for contaminant monitoring in raptors. Keywords Best practices Birds of prey Falcons Large-scale biomonitoring Owls Pan-European network

Biomonitoring using birds of prey as sentinel species has been mooted as a way to evaluate the success of European Union directives that are designed to protect people and the environment across Europe from industrial contaminants and pesticides. No such pan-European evaluation currently exists. Coordination of such large scale monitoring would require harmonisation across multiple countries of the types of samples collected and analysedmatrices vary in the ease with which they can be collected and the information they provide. We report the first ever pan-European assessment of which raptor samples are collected across Europe and review their suitability for biomonitoring. Currently, some 182 monitoring programmes across 33 European countries collect a variety of raptor samples, and we discuss the relative merits of each for monitoring current priority and emerging compounds. Of the matrices collected, blood and liver are used most extensively for quantifying trends in recent and longerterm contaminant exposure, respectively. These matrices are potentially the most effective for pan-European biomonitoring but are not so widely and frequently collected as others. We found that failed eggs and feathers are the most widely collected samples. Because of this ubiquity, they may provide the best opportunities for widescale biomonitoring, although neither is suitable for all compounds. We advocate piloting pan-European monitoring of selected priority compounds using these matrices and developing read-across approaches to accommodate any effects that trophic pathway and species differences in accumulation may have on our ability to track environmental trends in contaminants.

Biomonitoring using raptors as sentinels can provide early warning of the potential impacts of contaminants on humans and the environment and also a means of tracking the success of associated mitigation measures. Examples include detection of heavy metal-induced immune system impairment, PCB-induced altered reproductive impacts, and toxicity associated with lead in shot game. Authorisation of such releases and implementation of mitigation is now increasingly delivered through EU-wide directives but there is little established pan- European monitoring to quantify outcomes.We investigated the potential for EU-wide coordinated contaminant monitoring using raptors as sentinels. We did this using a questionnaire to ascertain the current scale of national activity across 44 European countries. According to this survey, there have been 52 different contaminant monitoring schemes with raptors over the last 50 years. There were active schemes in 15 (predominantly western European) countries and 23 schemes have been running for N20 years; most monitoring was conducted for N 5 years. Legacy persistent organic compounds (specifically organochlorine insecticides and PCBs), and metals/metalloids weremonitored inmost of the 15 countries. Fungicides, flame retardants and anticoagulant rodenticides were also relatively frequently monitored (each in at least 6 countries). Common buzzard (Buteo buteo), common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), tawny owl (Strix aluco) and barn owl (Tyto alba) were most commonly monitored (each in 6–10 countries). Feathers and eggs were most widely analysed although many schemes also analysed body tissues. Our study reveals an existing capability across multiple European countries for contaminant monitoring using raptors. However, coordination between existing schemes and expansion of monitoring into Eastern Europe is needed. This would enable assessment of the appropriateness of the EU-regulation of substances that are hazardous to humans and the environment, the effectiveness of EU level mitigation policies, and identify pan-European spatial and temporal trends in current and emerging contaminants of concern.

Disease can have severe impact on animal populations, especially in rare species. Baseline data for atypical hostspecies are missing for a range of infectious diseases, although such hosts are potentially more affected than thenormal vectors and reservoir species. If highly pathogenic avian influenza strikes rare birds of prey, this mayhave crucial impact on the predator species itself, but also on the food web in which it interacts. Here we presentthe first large-scale screening of raptors that regularly consume birds belonging to the natural reservoir ofinfluenza A viruses. Influenza A virus prevalence was studied in two rare raptors, the white-tailed sea eagle(Haliaeetus albicilla) and the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus). Nestlings were screened for active (181 whitetailed sea eagles and 168 peregrine falcons) and past (123 white-tailed sea eagles and 6 peregrine falcons)infection in 2006–2007, and an additional 20 succumbed adult white-tailed sea eagles were sampled in 2003–2006. Neither high- nor low-pathogenic influenza infections were found in our sample, but this does not rule outthat the former may have major impact on rare raptors and their food webs.

Biomonitoring using raptors as sentinels can provide early warning of the potential impacts of contaminants on humans and the environment and also a means of tracking the success of associated mitigation measures. Examples include detection of heavy metal-induced immune system impairment, PCB-induced altered reproductive impacts, and toxicity associated with lead in shot game. Authorisation of such releases and implementation of mitigation is now increasingly delivered through EU-wide directives but there is little established pan-European monitoring to quantify outcomes. We investigated the potential for EU-wide coordinated contaminant monitoring using raptors as sentinels. We did this using a questionnaire to ascertain the current scale of national activity across 44 European countries. According to this survey, there have been 52 different contaminant monitoring schemes with raptors over the last 50 years. There were active schemes in 15 (predominantly western European) countries and 23 schemes have been running for >20 years; most monitoring was conducted for >5 years. Legacy persistent organic compounds (specifically organochlorine insecticides and PCBs), and metals/metalloids were monitored in most of the 15 countries. Fungicides, flame retardants and anticoagulant rodenticides were also relatively frequently monitored (each in at least 6 countries). Common buzzard (Buteo buteo), common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), tawny owl (Strix aluco) and barn owl (Tyto alba) were most commonly monitored (each in 6–10 countries). Feathers and eggs were most widely analysed although many schemes also analysed body tissues. Our study reveals an existing capability across multiple European countries for contaminant monitoring using raptors. However, coordination between existing schemes and expansion of monitoring into Eastern Europe is needed. This would enable assessment of the appropriateness of the EU-regulation of substances that are hazardous to humans and the environment, the effectiveness of EU level mitigation policies, and identify pan-European spatial and temporal trends in current and emerging contaminants of concern.

Most of the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) populations in Europe experienced dramatic declines during the twentieth century. However, owing to intense conservation actions and the ban of DDT and other persistent pollutants, populations are currently recovering. We show that despite passing through demographic bottlenecks, white-tailed eagle populations have retained significant levels of genetic diversity. Both genetic and ringing data indicate that migration between populations has not been a major factor for the maintenance of genetic variability. We argue that the long generation time of eagles has acted as an intrinsic buffer against loss of genetic diversity, leading to a shorter effective time of the experienced bottleneck. Notably, conservation actions taken in several small sub-populations have ensured the preservation of a larger proportion of the total genetic diversity than if conservation had focused on the population stronghold in Norway. For conservation programmes targeting other endangered, long-lived species, our results highlight the possibility for local retention of high genetic diversity in isolated remnant populations.

We report the development of 14 novel polymorphic microsatellite markers cloned from theWhite-tailed Sea Eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla, a formerly threatened raptor that has receivedmuch conservation attention throughout Eurasia. We also present a protocol for multiplexpolymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the loci. Among 40 unrelated H. albicillaindividuals from southern Sweden, the markers produced two to eight alleles per locus,and average observed and expected heterozygosities were 0.463 and 0.468, respectively. Wefurther present five microsatellite markers that appeared monomorphic in H. albicilla, butwhich may be of interest for use in other raptor species

Telomeres are used as biomarkers of vertebrate health because of the link between their length, lifespan, andsurvival. Exposure to environmental stressors appears to alter telomere dynamics, but little is known abouttelomere length and persistent organic pollutant (POP) exposure in wildlife. The white-tailed eagle (WTE;Haliaeetus albicilla) is an avian top predator that accumulates high levels of POPs and may subsequently sufferadverse health effects. Here we study the Baltic WTE population that is well documented to have been exposed tolarge contaminant burdens, thereby making it a promising candidate species for analyzing pollutant-mediatedeffects on telomeres. We investigated telomere lengths in WTE nestlings (n = 168) over 19 years and examinedlegacy POP concentrations (organochlorines and polybrominated diphenyl ethers) in whole blood andserum as potential drivers of differences in telomere length. Although we detected significant year-to-yearvariations in telomere lengths among the WTE nestlings, telomere lengths did not correlate with any of theinvestigated POP concentrations of several classes. Given that telomere lengths did not associate with POPcontamination in the Baltic WTE nestlings, we propose that other environmental and biological factors, whichlikely fluctuate on a year-to-year basis, could be more important drivers of telomere lengths in this population.

Identifying the sex of bird nestlings is relevant to studies of behaviour and ecology and is often a central issue in the management of endangered or captive populations. The white-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla is a formerly threatened Eurasian raptor which is closely monitored in many countries due to its high exposure to environmental pollutants in the food chain. The aim of this study was to evaluate the reliability of sex identification methods for white-tailed eagle nestlings based on morphological measurements that can be recorded at the nest by a single person and with minimum disturbance. The sex of each bird was independently determined using molecular (genetic) methods. One measure of tarsus width allowed the correct identification of sex for 96% of the nestlings from southern and central Sweden. However, we found that the criteria for sex identification were not directly applicable to the population in Swedish Lapland, where nestlings are typically thinner, probably due to a limited food supply. These results show that sexing in the field of white-tailed eagle nestlings can be feasible with high accuracy based on a limited number of measurements. However, the criteria employed to separate sexes may have to be adjusted for each population.

This paper summarizes results from the monitoring of reproduction of white-tailed sea eagle in Sweden 1965–2006. Since 1989 the eagle population on the Swedish Baltic coast has been included in the National Environment Monitoring Program as an indicator species for potentially harmful chemicals. The percentage of successfully reproducing pairs and nestling brood size decreased in synchrony with rising concentrations of contaminants in the 1950s on into the 1970s. Mean productivity was 1.3 young per pair prior to 1950 and decreased to 0.3 in 1965–1985. Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene (DDE) in eagle eggs decreased from a range of annual means in 1965–1974 of 600-1200 lg g1 (lipid weight) to 60–140 lg g1 in 1996–2005. Total polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) concentrations averaged above 1000 lg g1 into the early 1980s and remained in the range of 250–500 lg g1 in 1996–2005. Productivity began to improve when concentrations of DDE and PCBs dropped below approximately 300 and 800 lg g1, respectively. Brood size remains below the pre-1950level in one coastal region, indicating a possible impact from other contaminants. The power to detect significant trends under the program is presented and discussed: if white-tailed sea eagle reproduction had been monitored earlier during the 20th century, the negative impact of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT, source of DDE) would have been signaled as early as the 1950s in the Baltic Sea. The dramatic fall of white-tailed sea eagle reproduction under the influence of DDT and PCBs, and the subsequent rise following their ban, illustrates the usefulness of raptors like sea eagles as sentinels for environmental pollutants.

Exposure to lead (Pb) from ammunition in scavenging and raptorial birds has achieved worldwide recognition based on incidences of lethal poisoning, but exposure implies also sublethal levels with potential harmful effects.Background and elevated Pb levels in liver from 116 golden eagles (GE, Aquila chrysaetos) and 200 white-tailed sea eagles (WTSE, Haliaeetus albicilla) from Sweden 2003–2011 are here examined, with supporting data from a previous WTSE report and eagle owl (EO, Bubu bubo) report. GE and WTSE display seasonal patterns, with no Pb level exceeding a generally accepted threshold for subclinical effects during summer but strongly elevated levels from October. Fledged juveniles show significantly lower levels than all other age classes, but reach levels found in older birds in autumn after the start of hunting seasons. Pb levels in EO (non-scavenger) show no seasonal changes and indicate no influence from ammunition, and are close to levels observed in juvenile eagles before October. In all, 15% WTSE and 7% GE were lethally poisoned. In areas with high-exposure to hunting ammunition, 24% of WTSE showed lethal Pb levels, compared to 7% in both eagle species from low-exposure areas. Lethal poisoning of WTSE remained as frequent after (15%) as before (13%) a partial ban on use of Pb-based shotgun ammunition over shallow waters (2002). Pb levels increased significantly in WTSE 1981–2011,in contrast to other biota from the same period. A significant decrease of Pb in WTSE liver occurred below a threshold at 0.25 μg/g (dry weight), exceeded by 81% of the birds. Trend patterns in Pb isotope ratios lend further support to this estimated cut-off level for environmental background concentrations. Pb from spent ammunition affects a range of scavenging and predatory species. A shift to Pb-free ammunition to save wildlife from unnecessary harm is an important environmental and ethical issue.

Patterns of lead and other trace metals were examined in 122 Eurasian eagle owls Bubo bubo found dead in Sweden in the period 1978–2013. Environmental lead (Pb) has decreased over recent decades from reduced anthropogenic emissions but mortality by Pb poisoning is still frequently reported for avian raptors and scavengers exposed to Pb ammunition. One objective here was to determine if Pb concentrations in a nocturnal non-scavenging raptor follow the general decline observed in other biota. Pb concentration in owl liver was significantly correlated with body weight, sex, latitude, longitude and season. Pb showed a significant decreasing trend towards north and west. Starved birds had significantly higher concentrations. Total Pb concentrations in liver averaged 0.179 μg g−1 dry weight (median 0.103) and decreased by 5.6% per year 1978–2013, or 5.3% after adjustment for confounding factors, similar to trends in other species. Among 14 other trace elements only antimony and arsenic showed decreasing trends. Lead isotope ratios 206Pb/207Pb and 208Pb/207Pb increased from 1.138 and 2.408 in 1978–1985 to 1.170 and 2.435 in 2010–2013, respectively, demonstrating that the decreasing Pb concentration in eagle owl is related to the phase-out of leaded gasoline in Europe, where Pb additives had much lower isotope ratios than natural lead in Swedish soils. Only one incidence of suspected Pb poisoning (40.7 μg g−1 in liver) was observed indicating that poisoning from ingestion of metallic lead is rare (< 1%) in eagle owl in Sweden, in contrast to what has been reported for eagles.

Höga koncentrationer av PCB och DDE har konstaterats i ägg från fem havsörnshonor vid Norrlands-kusten. Möjliga förklaringar kan vara regional förorening, eller att vissa örnar lever på en högre nivå i en näringskedja där koncentrationerna ökar i varje steg. Denna rapport redovisar resultat från analyser av PCB, DDE, HCB och stabila isotoper (SI) (δ15N, δ13C) i muskel från fiskar (fyra lokaler), skarvar (tre lokaler), ägg från skarv (tre lokaler) och havsörn (två lokaler) i Västernorrlands län, och SI i ägg och fjädrar från havsörn i olika biotoper vid Östersjökusten. PCB, DDE, HCB i fiskar visade inte påtagligt högre koncentrationer än vad som rapporterats från Norrlandskusten i övrigt, men hade högre värden för PCB och HCB än vid Kvädöfjärden, Holmöarna och Örefjärden, som används som referenslokaler längs Östersjökusten inom den nationella miljöövervakningen. Koncentrationerna i muskel från skarvungar jämfört med muskel från abborre på lipidbasis var ca 3-7 ggr högre för DDE och upp till två resp. tre ggr högre för HCB och PCB (CB-153). I skarvägg jämfört med abborre var förhöjningen av koncentrationer 30-400 ggr för DDE, 30-140 ggr för PCB och 7-30 ggr för HCB. Koncentrationer av DDE och PCB (CB-153) i de högbelastade havsörnsäggen från Västernorrland var 20 respektive 40 ggr högre än i skarväggen. Hos havsörn ses en tydlig trend för både ägg och fjädrar för δ13C, som blir tyngre ju mer marin fyndplatsen antagits vara, men ingen trend för δ15N. En stegvis ökning ses för δ15N i muskelprover från olika fiskar till skarvungar och skarvägg, dock inte vidare till havsörnsägg, men däremot till havsörnsfjädrar. Avsaknaden av skillnad i δ15N mellan skarv- och havsörnsägg indikerar att de inte är jämförbara med avseende på trofiska nivåer. Statistiskt signifikanta men relativt svaga samband ses mellan koncentrationer av DDE och PCB och δ15N i hela materialet av havsörnsägg. Havsörn är på högre trofisk nivå än skarv men δ15N i örnäggen som läggs redan i mars avspeglar troligen ett inslag av däggdjurskadaver under vintern, medan fjädrarna avspeglar sommarfödan (mest fisk och fågel). Möjligheten kvarstår att högre miljögiftshalter i äggen hos vissa havsörnar kan bero på högre trofisk nivå men detta bör undersökas på fjädrar.

The reproduction of white-tailed sea eagles was monitoredin1964–1999 in 3 differently contaminated sub-populations: BalticSea coast (Bp), inland central Sweden (Ip) and Lapland (Lp). 249dead eggs from 205 clutches were obtained for analyses of DDEand PCBs and for eggshell measurements. A desiccation index(Di) value was calculated for each egg as a measure of waterloss through the shell. In the highly contaminated Bp, p,p´-DDEconcentrations in the eggs decreased continuously and 5-foldduring the study period and PCB concentrations decreased 3-fold from the mid 1980s. The PCB pattern changed slightly overtime towards more high-chlorinated congeners but the relativetoxicity of the PCB mixture, expressed as 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin equivalents (TEQ), remained constant and TEQcan be assumed to have decreased in a similar way as PCB overtime. Productivity (P), shell thickness (St), shell index (Si) and Diincreased over time in the Bp but no change in Di or productivityoccurred in the Lp, where residue concentrations were 5–8 timeslower. P of the Bp was not correlated to St or Si but was negatively correlated to Di, DDE and PCB. An S-shaped doseresponse relationship was indicated between P and DDE. After1988, when the PCB/DDE ratio was considerably higher thanpreviously, PCB but not DDE concentrations were significantlyhigher in eggs with dead embryos as compared to undevelopedeggs, implying lethal concentrations of PCB, and a LOEL of 320pg g–1 TEQ is suggested for embryo mortality. In a subset of 21eggs, representing productive and unproductive females, analyzed for a selection of coplanar PCB congeners, tris(4-chlorophenyl) methanol and bis(4-chlorophenyl) sulphone, there wasno evidence for a correlation between P and any of these compounds. A reduction in residue concentrations in old females didnot lead to increased P or improved Di-values, indicating aremaining effect from a previous, higher exposure to contaminants. The inability to reproduce included a high rate ofundeveloped eggs, indicating effects at a prezygotic stage. Pshowed the strongest correlation with Di, and Di was moststrongly correlated to DDE. Thus, the remaining effect of previousexposure resulted in a stronger correlation to the symptom (Di)rather than to the suggested causative agent (DDE). LOEL valuesfor depressed P were estimated at 120 µg g–1 DDE and 500 µgg–1 PCB (lipid basis). It is concluded that the major reason fordepressed P during the study period was DDE, but that effectsalso from PCB were largely concealed by the effects from DDE.

The growing gray seal population in the Baltic Sea has led to increased conflicts with fisheries. Despite limited data on gray seal ecology, management measures,such as culling, have been implemented recently. We studied movements and site fidelity of Baltic gray seals using mark-recapture analysis based on photographic identification of individuals (photo-id). Seals were photographed at the major summer haul-out sites. Profile photographs of the head and neck were matched using purpose-written software to generate a database of capture histories from 1995–2000. The haul-outs were grouped into seven areas. Darroch’s method (20) for a two-sample capture-recapture census was adapted to estimate rates of movement between the areas. The majority of seals were estimated to remain within the same area, suggesting that Baltic gray seals exhibit a high degree of sitefidelity during the summer, and that fidelity to a sitel asts for more than one season

Forty-four unhatched eggs from white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), collected in four regions inSweden in 1992–2005, were analysed for contents of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs),polybrominated biphenyl (PBB), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and naturally occurring methoxylatedpolybrominated diphenyl ethers (MeO-PBDEs). Two freshwater areas—Lapland in the arctic zone (LAP) andinland lakes in central and southern Sweden (INL), and two brackish marine areas in the Baltic Sea—thesouth Bothnian Sea (SB) and the Baltic Proper (BP)—were chosen for comparison of the concentrations andcongener distributions in white-tailed sea eagles with different diet and migratory patterns. The geometricmean (GM) concentrations (ng/g lipid weight (l.w.)) of ∑5PBDE (BDE-47, -99, -100, -153, and -154) were720 (LAP), 1500 (INL), 4 100 (SB) and 4 300 (BP), whereas BDE-209 was not detectable in any of the samples.The GM concentrations for HBCD content in LAP, INL, SB and BP were 60, 90, 150 and 140 ng/g l.w.,respectively, whereas the corresponding values for BB-153 were 20, 30, 100 and 120 ng/g l.w. In general, theeggs from all four regions demonstrated similar patterns of PBDE congeners, with concentrations indescending order of BDE-47, -100, -99, -153 and -154. The ∑3-MeO-BDEs (6-MeO-BDE47, 2′-MeO-BDE68,5-Cl-6-MeO-BDE47) for these same regions (as above) were 80, 40, 340 and 240 ng/g l.w., respectively.∑3-MeO-BDEs for LAP and INL (freshwaters) were significantly different, whereas those for SB and BP were not.The presence of MeO-PBDEs in all of the inland samples indicates that there is an as-yet-unidentified sourceof these compounds in the freshwater ecosystem. Between the two more contaminated subpopulationsfrom the Baltic Sea coast, SB showed significantly lower productivity than BP, but no correlation was foundbetween productivity and PBDE, PBB and HBCD at the concentrations found in this study.

Eggs laid by white-tailed sea eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla), one in 1941 and five eggs between 1996 and 2001, all from the same geographical region of the Baltic Sea, were screened for organohalogen substances. The 1941 egg contained hexachlorobenzene (HCB), but did not contain either of the pesticides hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) or p,p0-DDT, nor any metabolites of the latter. In contrast, the more recent eggs (REs) contained all of these compounds. Of the seven polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) analyzed (CB28, 52, 101, 118, 138/163, 153 and 180), only the more highly chlorinated congeners were detected in the 1941 sample, with CB153 followed by CB180 showing the highest concentrations. All eggs demonstrated the same congener pattern with respect to the more highly chlorinated PCBs, but concentrations were approximately 70–230 times higher in the REs. All of the polychlorinated-p-dioxin and dibenzofuran (PCDD/Fs) congeners analyzed were detected in the eggs, with the dominant congener being 2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF (1250 pg/g l.w. in 1941 and 1540 pg/g l.w. (GM) for the REs, respectively). None of the other congeners exceeded 400 pg/g l.w., and the concentrations of 2,3,7,8-TCDD, 2,3,7,8-TCDF and 1,2,3,7,8-PeCDF were all lower in the REs. None of five congeners of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) found in the REs was detected in the egg from 1941. The three methoxylated brominated diphenyl ethers (MeO-BDEs) analyzed were found at similar levels and with a similar congener pattern in REs as in the egg from 1941. In conclusion, this study has shown the absence of DDE and PBDE and the presence of HCB and PCBs in a white-tailed sea eagle egg laid in 1941, and a strong increase of PCBs, DDE and PBDE in white-tailed sea eagle eggs from the same area in 1996–2001. The MeO-BDEs were found in similar concentrations in the analyzed eggs. The 1941 sample shows substantial concentrations of PCDD/Fs, noteworthy in the same magnitude as in the recent samples, illustrating the historical and recent exposure of these compounds

Concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF), and dioxin-like non-ortho-PCBs were measured in white-tailed sea eagle (WTSE) eagle eggs collected along the Swedish coast of the Baltic Sea during the period 1992–2004. The eggs represent two different subpopulations with significantly different nestling brood sizes; the Baltic Proper (BP) with an approximately normal nestling brood size (1.62), and the south Bothnian Sea (sBS) with reduced nestling brood size (1.22) combined with asigni ficantly higher rate of dead eggs. The aim was to investigate if this difference in reproductive outcome was linked to differences in exposure to dioxin-like compounds. Three eggs collected in Greenland in 200 were included in the study to provide a reference sea eagle population outside of the Baltic Sea region. The concentrations of ΣPCDD, ΣPCDF and Σnon-ortho-PCB in the two subpopulations from the Baltic Sea (BS) region ranged from 0.41–4.1, 1.2–5.3 and 180–970 ng/g lipids, respectively, while in the Greenland population the ranges were 0.11–0.16, 0.22–0.33 and 57–83 ng/g lipid, respectively. 2,3,4,7,8-PCDF was the predominant congener in all areas and accounted for on average 31–49% of the total ΣPCDD/F concentrations. The total toxic equivalents (TEQ) in sBS WTSEs were higher (approximately 39 ng TEQ/g lipid) than reported in eggs for many other birds, and the major contributors to the TEQ in the Baltic Sea were the non-ortho-PCBs. A principal component analysis (PCA) showed a difference in congener pattern between the two Baltic regions that was statistically significant (Hotelling's T2 test). Wefound no significant differencesin the total TEQ between the two populations (sBS–BP) and thus no evidence was found linking the reproductive impairment in WTSE in sBS to the concentrations of PCDD/Fs or non-ortho-PCBs in the eggs.

The spatiotemporal trends of mercury (Hg) are crucial for the understanding of this ubiquitous and toxic contaminant. However, uncertainties often arise from comparison among studies using different species, analytical and statisticalmethods. The long-termtemporal trends of Hg exposurewere reconstructed for a key sentinel species, the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla). Body feathers were sampled from museum collections covering 150 years in time (from 1866 to 2015) from West Greenland (n = 124), Norway (n = 102), and Sweden (n= 87). A significant non-linear trend was observed in the Norwegian subpopulation, with a 60% increase in exposure occurring from1866 to 1957 followed by a 40% decline until 2015. In the Swedish subpopulation, studied at a later period, the Hg exposure showed a drastic decline of 70% from 1967 to 2011. In contrast, no significant trend could be observed in the Greenland subpopulation. The additional analysis of dietary proxies (δ13C and δ15N) in general increased performance of the temporal trend models, but this was dependent on the subpopulation and study period. The downward trend of Hg coincided with the decreasing δ13C and δ15N in the Norwegian subpopulation, suggesting a potential dietary mitigation of Hg contamination. Hg exposure in both the Greenland andNorwegian subpopulationswas consistently belowthe suggested threshold for adverse health effects (40.0 μg g−1),while the maximumexposure in the Swedish subpopulationwas distinctively elevated (median: 46.0 μg g−1) and still remains well above natural background concentrations (maximum 5.0 μg g−1).

Understanding the spatiotemporal patterns of legacy organochlorines (OCs) is often difficult because monitoringpractices differ among studies, fragmented study periods, and unaccounted confounding by ecological variables.We therefore reconstructed long-term (1939–2015) and large-scale (West Greenland, Norway, and centralSweden) trends of major legacy OCs using white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) body feathers, to understandthe exposure dynamics in regions with different contamination sources and concentrations, as well as the effectiveness of legislations. We included dietary proxies (δ13C and δ15N) in temporal trend models to control forpotential dietary plasticity. Consistent with the hypothesised high local pollution sources, levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) inthe Swedish subpopulation exceeded those in the other subpopulations. In contrast, chlordanes (CHLs) andhexachlorobenzene (HCB) showed higher concentrations in Greenland, suggesting the importance of long-rangetransport. The models showed significantly decreasing trends for all OCs in Sweden in 1968–2011 except forCHLs, which only decreased since the 1980s. Nevertheless, median concentrations of DDTs and PCBs remainedelevated in the Swedish subpopulation throughout the 1970s, suggesting that the decreases only commencedafter the implementation of regulations during the 1970s. We observed significant trends of increasing concentrations of PCBs, CHLs and HCB in Norway from the 1930s to the 1970s/1980s and decreasing concentrationsthereafter. All OC concentrations, except those of PCBs were generally significantly decreasing in the Greenlandsubpopulation in 1985-2013. All three subpopulations showed generally increasing proportions of the morepersistent compounds (CB 153, p.p′-DDE and β-HCH) and decreasing proportions of the less persistent ones (CB52, p.p′-DDT, α- and γ-HCH). Declining trends of OC concentrations may imply the decreasing influence of legacyOCs in these subpopulations. Finally, our results demonstrate the usefulness of archived museum feathers inretrospective monitoring of spatiotemporal trends of legacy OCs using birds of prey as sentinels.

Using archived feathers from Norwegian, Swedish, andGreenlandic white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla), we investigatedlong-term (1866−2015) spatiotemporal trends of polybrominateddiphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and their methoxylated analogues (MeOPBDEs).Concentrations of BDE 47 (constituting 47−65% of ΣPBDEs). were significantly increased in feathers from Sweden, while those of othercongeners remained at similar levels between Sweden and Norway.Among the naturally occurring MeO-PBDEs, 6-MeO-BDE 47 exhibitedhigher levels in Sweden while 2′-MeO-BDE 68 concentrations weresimilar across regions. Concentrations of BDE 47 and 6-MeO-BDE 47were not intercorrelated in Swedish eagles, highlighting the significanceof anthropogenic input and natural origin, respectively, possiblyassociated with enhanced primary production in the Baltic region. Such a natural origin was further supported by the presence of MeO-PBDEs in 35 historical feathers originally collected from 1866to 1957. Furthermore, in eagles from Norway and Sweden, less brominated PBDEs exhibited significantly increasing trends until the1990s that declined considerably thereafter, whereas no apparent decrease was observed for BDE 153 or 154. By comparison, allPBDE congeners showed nonlinear but insignificant changes in Greenland. Additionally, the Swedish eagles showed significantlyincreased levels of ΣMeO-PBDEs, primarily driven by 6-MeO-BDE 47. Our findings indicate that further evaluation of the sourcesand impacts of more highly brominated PBDEs and MeO-PBDEs is warranted.

ABSTRACT:

We reconstructed the first long-term (1968−2015) spatiotemporal trends of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) using archived body feathers of white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) from the West Greenland (n = 31), Norwegian (n = 66), and Central Swedish Baltic coasts (n = 50). We observed significant temporal trends of perfluorooctane sulfonamide (FOSA), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), and perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (ΣPFCAs) in all three subpopulations. Concentrations of FOSA and PFOS had started decreasing significantly since the mid-1990s to 2000 inthe Greenland and Norwegian subpopulations, consistent with the 3M phase-out, though in sharp contrast to overall increasing trends observed in the Swedish subpopulation. Moreover, ΣPFCA concentrations significantly increased in all three subpopulations throughout the study periods. These temporal trends suggest on going input of PFOS in the Baltic and of ΣPFCAs in all three regions. Considerable spatial variation in PFAS concentrations and profiles was observed: PFOS concentrations were significantly higher in Sweden, whereas FOSA and ΣPFCA concentrations were similar among the subpopulations. PFOS dominated the PFAS profiles in the Swedish and Norwegian subpopulations, in contrast to thedomination of FOSA and ΣPFCAs in the Greenland one. Our spatiotemporal observations underline the usefulness of archived bird of prey feathers in monitoring spatiotemporal PFAS trends and urge for continued monitoring efforts in each of the studied subpopulations.