Generic limits of Chrysophyllum and Pouteria (Chrysophylloideae, Sapotaceae) have been found to be untenable. We here search for natural lineages in Neotropical Chrysophylloideae by sampling 101 terminals for molecular sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA (external and internal transcribed spacer), the nuclear gene RPB2 and 17 morphological characters. Data were analysed with Bayesian inference and parsimony jackknifing. Morphological traits were finally optimized onto the tree to identify the most coherent characters. The resulting phylogenetic tree suggests that the limits of the well-known genera Chrysophyllum and Pouteria must be amended. Diploon, Ecclinusa and Elaeoluma can be maintained and Chrysophyllum sections Ragala section Prieurella and the satellite gen- era Achrouteria, Cornuella, Martiusella and Nemaluma merit generic resurrection. Lucuma may be restored if the type species belongs to the clade. The accepted genera Chromolucuma, Pradosia and Sarcaulus gain strong clade support, but are embedded in a core clade of Pouteria and may be relegated to the subgeneric level if morphologi- cal studies cannot provide evidence concurring with narrow generic concepts. Circumscriptions of Micropholis and Chrysophyllum sections Chrysophyllum and Villocuspis remain unclear and must be explored by using an extended taxon sampling. We predict that yet-to-be-analysed species of Pouteria sections Franchetella, Gayella, Oxythece and Pouteria and members of the currently accepted genera Chromolucuma, Pradosia and Sarcaulus will fall inside the core clade of Pouteria when analysed. 

Phylogenetic relationships of the two Malagasy Sapotaceae endemic genera Capurodendron and Tsebona have been unclear until now. Recent collections from Madagascar, as well as a better representation of the tribe Isonandreae, altogether 95 terminals, were used to estimate a phylogeny of subfamily Sapotoideae. We analysed sequences of nrDNA (ITS) and cpDNA (trnH-psbA) with Bayesian inference and parsimony jackknifing. As in previous analyses, Sapoteae and Sideroxyleae are recovered monophyletic. In addition, Isonandreae, distributed in the Indo-Pacific, is for the first time resolved as monophy- letic and sister to Sapoteae. All Malagasy accessions of Capurodendron, Tsebona, and a new species are grouped in another well-supported clade. This clade is accommodated in a new tribe Tseboneae characterized by caducous stipules, 5-merous flowers with quincuncial sepals, contorted aestivation of corolla lobes, absence of corolla appendages, one or three stamens opposite each corolla lobe, villous staminodes, seeds with an adaxial scar and plano-convex cotyledons, lacking endosperm. The new species is described in the new genus Bemangidia (B. lowryi) because it has a unique leaf venation for the tribe and combines different morphological features from Capurodendron and Tsebona. All three genera are well-supported monophy- letic groups. Bemangidia lowryi is threatened with extinction due to extensive ongoing forest destruction and is assigned a preliminary conservation status of Critically Endangered.

The New Caledonian biodiversity hotspot contains many micro-hotspots that exhibit high plant micro- endemism, and that are facing different types and intensities of threats. The Belep archipelago, and especially Île Art, with 24 and 21 respective narrowly endemic species (1 Extinct, 21 Critically Endangered and 2 Endangered), should be considered as the most sensitive micro-hotspot of plant diversity in New Caledonia because of the high anthropogenic threat of fire. Nano-hotspots could also be defined for the low forest remnants of the southern and northern plateaus of Île Art. With an average rate of more than one new species described for New Caledonia each month since January 2000 and five new endemics for the Belep archipelago since 2009, the state of knowledge of the flora is steadily improving. The present account of eight new species from Île Art (Bocquillonia montrouzieri Gâteblé & McPherson, Cleidion artense Gâteblé & McPherson, Endiandra artensis Munzinger & McPherson, Eugenia belepiana J.W.Dawson ex N.Snow, Eugenia insulartensis J.W.Dawson ex N.Snow, Macaranga latebrosa Gâteblé & McPherson, Planchonella serpentinicola Swenson & Munzinger and Psychotria neodouarrei Barrabé & A.Martini) further demonstrates the need both to recognise the Belep Islands as a major New Caledonian micro-hotspot and to formulate concrete conservation programs for the archipelago. 

Pichonia munzingeri Gâteblé & Swenson (Sapotaceae, Chrysophylloideae) is here described from the southern ultrama c massif of Grande Terre, New Caledonia. It is a micro-endemic species con ned to a small area along Oumbéa Creek in La Coulée Valley of Mont-Dore. Based on nuclear ribosomal sequence data, areolate higher leaf venation, staminodes, stamens in corolla tube ori ce, and seeds having plano-convex cotyledons, no endosperm, and no radicle, this new species is placed in Pichonia Pierre. Preliminary phylogenetic analysis places Pichonia munzingeri as the sister species to all other congeners in New Caledonia, which justi es a high conservation status from the authorities for protecting the species. Less than 50 individuals have been counted in an area a ected by the major “Montagne des Sources” anthropogenic re in late 2005. Hence, repeated res form the main threat to the existence of this new species, and it is assigned an IUCN Red List preliminary status as “Critically Endangered”. 

Planchonella (Sapotaceae) in Hawaii has a complicated taxonomic history that has resulted in considerable confusion among bota- nists and conservation practitioners. Up to seven different species and several varieties have been described in Hawaii, with the most recent taxonomic evaluation recognizing one species, P. sandwicensis. We have conducted a phylogenetic study of Hawaiian Planchonella using molec- ular (ETS, ITS, and RPB2) and morphological data to infer whether one or several species can be distinguished. In line with earlier research based on molecular data, we find that Planchonella in Hawaii is comprised of two well-supported clades distinguished by fruit color: yellow or purple. The purple-fruited clade contains individuals with flat leaf blades, long pedicels, and greenish corollas, a species corresponding to P. sandwicensis, distributed on all Hawaiian Islands except the island of Hawaii. The yellow-fruited clade possesses leaves that are frequently longitudinally rolled, wavy or distally deflexed, short pedicels, and yellow or cream (rarely greenish) corollas, a species corresponding to P. spathulata that is distributed on all Hawaiian Islands but is believed rare in Kauai. Both species can set fruit with aborted ovules, resulting in small fruits that look dissimilar to well-developed fruit. The species can occur in sympatry, where P. sandwicensis seems to be better adapted to slightly wetter forests and higher altitudes, whereas P. spathulata usually occurs at lower elevations in mesic to dry forests. Both species exhibit large morphological variation and overlap, resulting in many previous collections with inadequate label information, which has impeded correct taxonomic determinations. We refrain from recognizing infraspecific taxa because there is no morphological coherence, no molecular support, and it is unhelpful for species conservation. Five lectotypes are here designated. Both species are assessed for conservation status according to IUCN guidelines and are tentatively proposed as species of Least Concern.

Prieurella lenticellata sp. nov. is here described and illustrated as a new species endemic to the Amazon rainforest. It is morphologically similar to P. manaosensis, but differs by having trunks with relatively larger circumference, coriaceous and smaller leaves, cuneate to truncate leaf bases, and glabrescent fruits with numerous lenticels. The verrucous testa is addressed as an important generic feature of Prieurella. This new species is only known from northern Brazil and its border with French Guiana. It occurs in terra firme forest, on clayey soil in plain areas. Considering its occurrence in protected areas and its wide distribution, we suggest a preliminary conservation status as Least Concern, according to IUCN criteria. An identification key to all accepted species of Prieurella is included. 

Pycnandra longiflora (Sapotaceae) belongs to the largest endemic genus in New Caledonia. It is only known from the type collection made in 1861–67 at the obscure locality “Gatope”. Relocation of this species has been of high priority for more than a decade, but without success. Pycnandra longiflora was therefore recently declared extinct. However, a population was recently discovered near a mining site at Onajiele, in the Ouazangou-Taom massif, and it is revealed that P. longiflora has the most spectacular flowers in the entire genus, being large and bicoloured in red and yellow. A thorough description is here outlined and we propose a preliminary IUCN status as Critically Endangered.

The genus Pycnandra Benth. (Sapotaceae, Chrysophylloideae) is endemic to New Caledonia with 66 known species and is subdivided in six subgenera. We have earlier revised four of these subgenera and here continue with P. subgenus Leptostylis and describe P. subgenus Wagapensia. Subgenus Leptostylis is distinguished mainly by its opposite leaves and four sepals, and includes eight species, of which two are described as new (P. amplexicaulis and P. sclerophylla). Two species, P. longiflora and P. micrantha, are assumed extinct because extensive fieldwork has not been able to relocate the plants. Variation in leaf morphology was observed in Leptostylis gatopensis, which is by consequence considered as synonym of Pycnandra filipes. Two additional taxa belong to this subgenus, but cannot presently be described because sufficient fertile material is unavailable. Subgenus Wagapensia is monotypic and readily distinguished on the basis of its subverticillate leaves and leafy shoots usually borne beneath apical clusters of leaves, a character common in Sapotaceae but unique in Pycnandra. The members of P. subgenus Leptostylis occur mainly in maquis vegetation or sclerophyllous forests on ultramafic soil, but three taxa are confined to calcareous areas. Mining activities in New Caledonian ultramafic areas are extensive and because some of these species are naturally rare, IUCN Red List assessments are provided to all species. Pycnandra grandifolia and P. wagapensis are assigned the IUCN status Vulnerable, P. amplexicaulis and P. sclerophylla are considered Endangered, P. filipes subspecies multiflora and P. goroensis are considered to be Critically Endangered, whereas P. micrantha and P. longiflora appear to be extinct.

A new species of Pouteria from the Atlantic Forest area of the northern littoral of Bahia State, Brazil, is described and illus- trated. Pouteria synsepala, whose epithet refers to the basally united sepals, a feature rare in the genus, resembles P. salicifo- lia in its narrowly elliptic leaves, but differs by the angle of secondary veins in relation to the midrib, pentamerous flowers, and stamens adnate to the corolla tube from the base to the tube orifice. Micromorphological studies revealed different pat- terns of stomate and wax morphology in the two species, providing further justification for the recognition of P. synsepala.

Biogeography of Sideroxylon (Sapotoideae) and whether the satellite genera Argania and Spiniluma merit recognition are revisited. The hypothesis of an African origin with a subsequent migration to Central America via Europe and the North Atlantic landbridge is challenged. We analysed 58 accessions of trnH-psbA and ITS sequences in a fossil- calibrated, relaxed lognormal clock model with BEAST for phylogenetic and biogeographic inference. Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels from Morocco must be united with Sideroxylon, whereas S. discolor Radcl.-Sm. and S. oxyacanthum Baill. belong to subfamily Chrysophylloideae and may be recognised as Spiniluma. The divergence time estimate suggests that Sideroxylon originated and first diversified in Central America 56.3–52.2 million years ago, contemporaneous with the landbridge, but an archipelago of islands and the Tethys Seaway halted eastward expansion to Africa until c. 20 million years ago, i.e. 25 million years after establishment in Africa. Range expansion of Sideroxylon was therefore not powered by the landbridge, and a long-distance dispersal from Central America to Africa is proposed. The establishment of the Gomphotherium landbridge between Africa and Eurasia at 19 million years ago provided a land-migration route to Europe and Asia, which is reconcilable with the extension of Xantolis into Asia. Sideroxylon has colonised Socotra by over-water dispersal in the Gulf of Aden, Macaronesia, Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands.

Oceanic islands originate fromvolcanism or tectonic activity without connections to continental landmasses, are colonized by organisms, and eventually vanish due to erosion and subsidence. Colonization of oceanic islands occurs through long-distance dispersals (LDDs) or metapopulation vicariance, the latter resulting in lineages being older than the islands they inhabit. If metapopulation vicariance is valid, island ages cannot be reliably used to provide maximum age constraints for molecular dating.We explore the relationships between the ages of members of a widespread plant genus (Planchonella, Sapotaceae) and their host islands across the Pacific to test various assumptions of dispersal and metapopulation vicariance. We sampled three nuclear DNA markers from 156 accessions representing some 100 Sapotaceae taxa, and analyzed these in BEAST with a relaxed clock to estimate divergence times and with a phylogeographic diffusion model to estimate range expansions over time. The phylogeny was calibrated with a secondary point (the root) and fossils from New Zealand. The dated phylogeny reveals that the ages of Planchonella species are, in most cases, consistent with the ages of the islands they inhabit. Planchonella is inferred to have originated in the Sahul Shelf region, to which it back-dispersed multiple times. Fiji has been an important source for range expansion in the Pacific for the past 23 myr. Our analyses reject metapopulation vicariance in all cases tested, including between oceanic islands, evolution of an endemic Fiji–Vanuatu flora, and westward rollback vicariance between Vanuatu and the Loyalty Islands. Repeated dispersal is the only mechanism able to explain the empirical data. The longest (8900 km) identified dispersal is between Palau in the Pacific and the Seychelles in the Indian Ocean, estimated at 2.2 Ma (0.4–4.8 Ma). The first split in a Hawaiian lineage (P. sandwicensis) matches the age of Necker Island (11.0Ma), when its ancestor diverged into two species that are distinguished by purple and yellowfruits. Subsequent establishment across the Hawaiian archipelago supports, in part, progression rule colonization. In summary, we found no explanatory power in metapopulation vicariance and conclude that Planchonella has expanded its range across the Pacific by LDD.We contend that this will be seen in many other groups when analyzed in detail.

Sahulia suboppositifolia (Sapotaceae, Chrysophylloideae) is described and illustrated as a new monotypic genus from New Guinea. The species is so far only known from four collections made in lowland tropical rainforest near Lake Murray in the west and Koitaki east of Port Moresby. As a member of Sapotaceae with white latex, entire leaves, and flowers in fascicles, it is readily distinguished by the combination of opposite leaves, non-areolate venation, and almost 10 mm long green flowers with a bristle-like corolla margin consisting of short, rather thick, and pointing trichomes. We also provide a new generic key to Sapotaceae for New Guinea. 

Classifications of the pantropical plant family Sapotaceae based solely on morphology have historically recognized be- tween 125 and 53 genera. Phylogenetic analyses using molecular data have repeatedly demonstrated that broad concepts of two large genera belonging to subfamily Chrysophylloideae, Chrysophyllum and Pouteria, are untenable and their narrowed delimitations have restricted them to the Neotropics. A recent phylogenetic study proposed further amendments by resurrecting the genera Achrouteria, Cornuella, Lucuma, Martiusella, Nemaluma, Prieurella and Ragala, and questioned the status of three generally accepted genera, Chromolucuma, Pradosia and Sarcaulus. We test this suggested classification using expanded sampling that comprises 122 terminals, including material of 29 of the 34 name-bringing species for generic names historically regarded as synonyms of Chrysophyllum and Pouteria. We used sequence data from ribosomal nrDNA (ETS, ITS), the nuclear gene RPB2, two cpDNA spacers (petN-psbM, trnH- psbA), and indel information to estimate phylogenetic relationships in a Bayesian framework using BEAST. All sequences were newly realigned to test reproducibility, and 26 morphological characters were mapped on the resulting tree. Our analyses recovered three African genera embedded within a large Neotropical clade of Chrysophylloideae. We found strong support for the reinstatement of the seven genera listed above as well as for four other genera, viz. Chloroluma, Englerella, Labatia, and Peteniodendron. This sub- sequently leads to further amendments of Chrysophyllum and Pouteria, which are now limited to include 25–30 and 7 species, respec- tively. However, one clade that includes many name-bringing lineages largely corresponds to Pouteria s.l., a group that needs further phylogenetic research to unravel relationships and generic limits. The hypothesis that Chrysophyllum cuneifolium had an inter- continental hybrid origin involving genomes from Africa and South America is rejected because it is shown to have been based on erroneous results obtained from a contaminated DNA aliquot. A total of 73 genera are currently recognised in Sapotaceae, 21 of which are Neotropical members of Chrysophylloideae. We update the nomenclature and synonymy of 75 species, make 36 new com- binations, and designate lectotypes for 31 names.

ThepantropicalplantfamilySapotaceaecurrentlyincludes65–70genera.Twogenera,BeauvisageaandBoerlagella,were described in 1890s using incomplete material from West New Guinea (Bird’s Head Peninsula) and Sumatra, neither of which has been collected since. Their systematic position has long been regarded doubtful and Boerlagella was once placed in its own family, Boer- lagellaceae. We show here how useful and important it can be to obtain small leaf fragments from type specimens that are up to 150 years old for molecular analysis aiming to determine their phylogenetic position and clarify their taxonomic status. We used nuclear ribosomal DNA (ETS, ITS) and the nuclear gene RPB2 from 170 terminals to estimate phylogenetic relationships in a Bayes- ian framework using BEAST. The old type material yielded full length sequences of ETS and ITS from both genera (less successful with RPB2), revealing that both are firmly placed in Planchonella. Boerlagella is placed in synonymy with Planchonella and its type is accepted as Planchonella spectabilis, a species from Sumatra that possibly has gone extinct due to deforestation. Beauvisagea from the Bird’s Head Peninsula of western New Guinea is likewise regarded as a synonym of Planchonella and its type, accepted as P. pomi- fera, is conspecific with Pouteria doonsaf (currently circumscribed to include material of at least two different species), not Plancho- nella maclayana as earlier believed. Our study also included Planchonella suboppositifolia, an odd species with a character combination in conflict with the current definition of the genus. Our results show that it is sister to a lineage comprising several gen- era, including Planchonella, and that it represents a distinct lineage constituting a monotypic genus that will be described in a sub- sequent paper. The most recent classification of subfamily Chrysophylloideae and the character combinations used to distinguish its constituent genera are supported, and our results confirm that taxa can reliably be assigned to a genus based on morphology alone. 

Pycnandra (Sapotaceae), the largest endemic genus in New Caledonia, comprises 66 species classified in six subgenera. We tested phylogenetic relationships and a proposed infrageneric classification by sampling 60 species for sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA (ETS, ITS, RPB2) and plastid DNA (trnH–psbA) and nine morphological characters. Data were analysed with Bayesian inference, parsimony jackknifing and lineage through time. We recovered a phylogenetic tree supporting the recognition of six proposed subgenera (Achradotypus, Leptostylis, Pycnandra, Sebertia, Trouettia and Wagapensia). Because a subgeneric classification is used, the nomenclature will be stable when the members are transferred to Pycnandra. Morphological traits were optimized in the BEAST analysis, adding evidence to earlier work that morphology has limited value for successfully diagnosing groups in Sapotaceae. We confirm a previously suspected case of cryptic species that exhibit the same morphological features and require the same abiotic conditions, but are distantly related in the phylogenetic tree. We detected two possible new cases of cryptic sibling species that might warrant recognition. A slowdown in speciation rate in several genera has been suggested as evidence that New Caledonia was once submerged after rifting from Australia. Plotting lineages through time reveals two important intervals at 7.5–8.6 Ma and present to 1.5 Ma, when net molecular diversification within the genus was zero. This indicates that the genus presently has reached a dynamic equilibrium, providing additional evidence that New Caledonia is an old Darwinian island, being submerged during the Eocene and colonized after re-emergence c. 37 Ma.

Pycnandra Benth. (Sapotaceae) is the largest endemic genus in New Caledonia and is subdivided into six subgenera. An addition of five species are here described in four subgenera, viz. P. comptonioides Swenson & Munzinger, P. kouakouensis Swenson & Munzinger, P. montana Swenson & Munzinger, P. poindimiensis Swenson & Munzinger and P. versicolor Swenson & Munzinger. Another seven to nine taxa are discussed but remain undescribed owing to the lack of adequate collections (and may remain undescribed pending the interpretation of the Nagoya Protocol). Pycnandra is characterised by a non-areolate higher leaf venation, sepals glabrous on the inner surface, no staminodes, and a single-seeded fruit. The members occur in a wide range of habitats and most species have very specific substrate requirements, growing on ultramafic, non-ultramafic or calcareous substrates. Almost 40 species are restricted to ultramafic substrates and many are now at risk of extinction because of deforestation, deliberately set fires and mining. We provide a systematic synopsis with keys to subgenera and species, phenology, substrate preferences, altitudinal ranges and preliminary IUCN Red List assessments for all described taxa. Four of the five new species are assessed as Critically Endangered. Pycnandra versicolor is in urgent need of conservation management beacuse its entire distribution is inside an active mine on the Koniambo massif.

Pycnandra Benth., a member of subfamily Chrysophylloideae (Sapotaceae), is the largest endemic genus in New Caledonia and is subdivided into six subgenera. It circumscribes 59 species, plus an additional three described here, and nine additional species that remain undescribed for various reasons. We here use nrDNA data of ETS, ITS, and RPB2, analyse it within a Bayesian framework using BEAST, and place the new species in their respective subgenera. Pycnandra perplexaSwenson & Gâteblé is placed in subgenus Achradotypus and given a preliminary IUCN Red List assessment of Near Threatened (NT). It is confined to the ultramafic massif of southern Grande Terre and separated from the similar species P. griseosepala Vink, which is confined to non-ultramafic mountains north of the large southern ultramafic plateau. Pycnandra kopetoensis Munzinger & Swenson and P. margueriteae Munzinger & Swenson are two new micro-endemic species known only from their type localities, where habitats have been destroyed by deforestation, deliberate fires and mining activities. Pycnandra kopetoensis is named after Mount Kopéto, placed in subgenus Leptostylis, and given a preliminary assessment as Critically Endangered (CR). Pycnandra margueriteae is from a small remnant forest near Bourail and categorised as Critically Endangered (CR). Revised identification keys for subgenus Achradotypus, Leptostylis and Pycnandra are provided.

Pleioluma (Baill.) Baehni (Sapotaceae) circumscribes some 40 medium-sized trees and shrubs, many gynodioecious, in Australia, Malesia and New Caledonia. Systematics of the group is unclear and delimitations of species are notoriously difficult. We explore species boundaries in New Caledonia by multiple accessions of ‘species’, molecules and morphology in a Bayesian framework. The molecular phylogenetic signal is weak, but morphology provides enough information to support groups, species and recognition of one cryptic species. Pleioluma is then revised for New Caledonia, a genus distinguished by areolate higher leaf venation, sepals being pubescent on both surfaces, stamens inserted in or below the middle of the corolla tube, presence of staminodes, foliaceous cotyledons and endosperm. Seventeen endemic species are recognised with descriptions, recognition notes, distributions, etymologies and conservation assessments. Six species are described as new, of which four are assigned IUCN preliminary status as Critically Endangered and in urgent need of protection (Pleioluma acutifolia Swenson & Munzinger, P. belepensis Swenson & Munzinger, P. butinii Swenson & Munzinger and P. tchingouensis Swenson & Munzinger). The new species, P. dioica Swenson & Munzinger and P. tenuipedicellata Swenson & Munzinger are respectively assessed as Data Deficient and Vulnerable. The micro-endemic species P. vieillardii (Baill.) Swenson & Munzinger, confined to the Koniambo massif, is also critically endangered and needs urgent conservation management. 

PouteriasplendensistheonlynativespeciesofSapotaceaeinChile,aspeciesonceplacedinthemonotypicgenusGayella and known as G. valparadisaea, but for a long time treated as a Pouteria. In a phylogenetic analysis, this species was placed in an Australasian clade, not with its presumed relatives in South America. We used Bayesian inference under a relaxed molecular clock in BEAST, nuclear ribosomal DNA (ETS, ITS), the nuclear gene RPB2, indel information, and 201 terminals to find the closest rel- ative of P. splendens and to estimate the age of the disjunction between Australasia and South America. The taxon has an isolated phylogenetic position, being part of the cladeʼs backbone, and is placed with weak support as sister to Van-royena, another monotypic genus, but endemic to Australia. Our results justify reinstatement of Gayella with its single species G. valparadisaea. Gayella has a unique combination of morphological features including alternate, opposite or 3-whorled leaves, often on the same plant, a usually 6-lobed, rotate corolla with revolute corolla lobes giving the flower a star-like appearance, lacerate to dentate staminodes, and yellow-orange-red fruit with plano-convex cotyledons and an exserted radicle below the cotyledon commissure. The split between Gayella and Van-royena is estimated to the late Eocene at about 40.0 Ma (50.5–25.3 Ma). The hypothesis that the presence of Gayella in South America is a result of vicariance is consistent with the timing of the geological splits of southern Gondwana, as well as with evidence from fossil pollen, but long-distance dispersal is an alternative explanation that cannot be excluded. Gayella is restricted to an area with a Mediterranean-type climate in coastal central Chile, where it occurs in rocky places, ravines, and gullies, usually below 100 m altitude within reach of sea mist. Gayella valparadisaea is a rare plant, listed as Endangered (EN) in Chile, but it does not occur in any protected area. Considering the isolated phylogenetic position of this old lineage, we urge the Chilean authorities to increase the efforts towards protection of this species.

Aim Panbiogeographers suggest that the biome in New Caledonia is of vicariant origin, dating from the Cretaceous – rather than being the result of repeated dispersal since c. 37 Ma, when the area is postulated to have re-emerged after c. 15 Ma of submergence. Distributions of the plant family Sapotaceae were used as a model system to test this, and to elucidate the probabilities of ancestral areas, all phrased in six hypotheses.

Location Australasia and the Pacific.

Methods We used a recently published dataset with extensive sampling (168 terminals) from the subfamily Chrysophylloideae and three nuclear ribosomal DNA markers. Phylogenetic divergence times and ancestral areas were estimated in a Bayesian framework using beast, a relaxed clock method, and with fossil calibration points. Area transition probabilities were modelled using a reversible rate matrix, assigning equal prior probability to each transition between two areas.

Results Our analyses suggest that Sapotaceae arrived and diversified in New Caledonia nine times during the period 4.2–33.1 Ma. All crown-node radiations occurred in the Miocene or Pliocene, with stem splits reaching back into the Oligocene. Australia and New Guinea are the most likely source areas for Sapotaceae in New Caledonia, but this archipelago has never acted as a stepping stone for Sapotaceae to disperse into the Pacific.

Main conclusions Repeated dispersal is the only mechanism able to explain the range expansion of Sapotaceae into New Caledonia. The family has successfully colonized the main island nine times since its re-emergence in the Eocene. We reject the panbiogeographical hypotheses that representatives of Sapotaceae in New Caledonia originated in the Cretaceous, differentiated due to vicariance, and were of Pacific origin. We therefore argue that New Caledonia is an old Darwinian island. The Pacific has been colonized repeatedly and terminal lineages are never older than the islands they inhabit (except for Hawaii). Chrysophylloideae extended across Wallace’s Line into Southeast Asia around 20 Ma, when the Australian continent came into juxtaposition with Eurasia.

Generic limits within subfamily Chrysophylloideae (Sapotaceae) from Oceania and Southeast Asia are reconciled based on a molecular phylogeny. We analysed sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA (ETS, ITS) and the nuclear gene RPB2 with BEAST and parsimony jackknifing, using a sample of 168 terminals. Eight morphological characters were traced on a condensed majority-rule consensus tree to identify diagnostic character combinations for the genera. Accepted genera with character support are Magodendron, Pichonia, Planchonella, Pycnandra, Sersalisia, and Van-royena, while Beccariella and Niemeyera require amendment. Beccariella, a widely distributed group, is an illegitimate later homonym and we propose that the genus Pleioluma is resurrected in its place. The Australian genus Niemeyera is paraphyletic, but it is rendered monophyletic by reinstating Amorphospermum for N. antiloga. Beauvisagea, Blabeia, Fontbrunea, and Krausella are all segregates of Planchonella and rejected, while Wokoia is a later synonym of Pichonia. Planchonella baillonii, an endemic species of New Caledonia, is the sole member of an old lineage and firmly placed as the sister to a clade comprising the other congeners. Planchonella sandwicensis, a Hawaiian species, previously proposed to be a distinct genus, is a member of Planchonella. In the Pacific, P. tahitensis (including P. grayana) is a polymorphic species, widely distributed and adapted to a wide range of habitats. We provide a generic key (excluding Xantolis), diagnostic character combinations for all genera, and the necessary taxonomic combinations for Pichonia, Planchonella, Pleioluma, and Sersalisia to render each genus monophyletic.

Recent phylogenetic studies in Sapotaceae have demonstrated that many genera need to be redefined to better correspond to natural groups. The Neotropical genus Pradosia is believed to be monophyletic and includes 26 recognized species. Here we reconstruct the generic phylogeny by a species-tree approach using ∗BEAST, 21 recognized species (36 accessions), sequence data from three nuclear markers (ITS, ETS, and RPB2), a relaxed lognormal clock model, and a fossil calibration. We explore the evolution of five selected morphological characters, reconstruct the evolution of habitat (white-sand vs. clayish soils) preference, as well as space and time by using a recently developed continuous diffusion model in biogeography. We find Pradosia to be monophyletic in its current circumscription and to have originated in the Amazon basin at ∼ 47.5 Ma. Selected morphological characters are useful to readily distinguish three clades. Preferences to white-sand and/or clay are somewhat important for the majority of species, but speciation has not been powered by habitat shifts. Pradosia brevipes is a relative young species (∼ 1.3 Ma) that has evolved a unique geoxylic life strategy within Pradosia and is restricted to savannahs. Molecular dating and phylogenetic pattern indicate that Pradosia reached the Brazilian Atlantic coast at least three times: at 34.4 Ma (P. longipedicellata), at 11.7 Ma (P. kuhlmannii), and at 3.9 Ma (weakly supported node within the red-flowered clade).

We provide a systematic update of Pradosia (Sapotaceae, Chrysophylloideae), including overall morphology, a key to all species, comprehensive morphological descriptions, geographic distributions, and important characteristics for each species. Phyloge- netic analyses based on molecular data demonstrated that the genus is monophyletic and includes three main clades. Twenty-three species of Pradosia are accepted, which are mostly distributed in lowland rainforests on either white-sand or clayish soils in tropical South America. A rotate corolla with a short tube, lack of staminodes, a drupaceous fruit with plano-convex cotyledons, an exserted radicle below the cotyledons, and the absence of endosperm are diagnostic for the genus. Two names are reduced into synonymy, viz. Pradosia atroviolacea Ducke, syn. of P. grisebachii (Pierre) T. D. Penn., and Pradosia verrucosa Ducke, syn. of P. glaziovii (Pierre) T. D. Penn. The affinity of P. argentea (Kunth) T. D. Penn., a species known only from the type collection, remains uncertain and for now excluded from the genus.

The story of the life and botanical contributions of Juan Ignacio Molina (1740-1829), “the first Chilean scientist”, are briefly outlined. The generic name Lucuma is considered to be validly published by Molina in 1782, and the identities of the five species of the genus, L. bifera, L. turbinata, L. valparadisaea, L. keule, and L. spinosa, are discussed. Four species names are neotypified with material from Chile and the nomenclatural implications are discussed. Lucuma bifera, with L. turbinata in synonymy, becomes the name for the commonly cultivated Andean fruit tree in Sapotaceae currently called Pouteria lucuma. Gayella valparadisaea, with Lucuma valparadisaea in synonymy, becomes the name for the endemic Chilean tree in Sapotaceae currently called Pouteria splendens. Gomortega keule, with Lucuma keule in synonymy, remains the name for this endemic Chilean fruit tree in the monotypic family Gomortegaceae. Geoffroea decorticans, with Lucuma spinosa in synonymy, remains the name for this South American tree or shrub with edible fruits in Fabaceae.

Rehderodendron truongsonense, a new species from Vietnam, is described and illustrated. In the treatment of the Styracaceae for the Flore du Cambodge, du Laos, et du Viêtnam, specimens of this species were recognized as R. macrocarpum Hu. These specimens clearly differ from R. macrocarpum, however, as well as from all other species of Rehderodendron (where these characters are known) by, e.g., an evergreen ver- sus deciduous habit, fewer secondary veins of the leaf blade, shorter inflorescences and corolla lobes, large and conspicuous lowermost bracteoles, the presence of eight ovules per carpel, and a fruit with ca. 10 to 20 ribs that are indistinct. Phylogenetic analysis based on five chloroplast DNA regions (clpP-psbB, ndhD-psaC-ndhE-ndhG, rpl22-rps19, rps18-rpl20, and psbI-trnS-GCU) placed the new species as nested within Rehderodendron and sister to R. gongshanense. This new species is endemic to the Truong Son Mountain Range, from which the epi- thet is derived, and we assign it an IUCN Red List preliminary status as Near Threatened.